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The '''American black bear''' ('''''Ursus americanus''''') is a medium-sized omnivorous bear found in forested areas throughout North America, and the only type of bear native to the Southeast. Its range has been reduced and fragmented by human settlement and populations are most stable in Northern Canada and along the Rocky and Appalachian ranges.
The '''American black bear''' ('''''Ursus americanus''''') is a medium-sized omnivorous bear found in forested areas throughout North America, and the only type of bear native to the Southeast. Its range has been reduced and fragmented by human settlement and populations are most stable in Northern Canada and along the Rocky and Appalachian ranges.


The subspecies '''''Ursus americanus americanus''''' or '''Eastern black bear''' predominates in the Eastern half of the continent, while another subspecies, '''''Ursus americanus floridanus''''' or "'''Florida black bear'''" is found in southern Alabama and Georgia and Florida.
The subspecies '''''Ursus americanus americanus''''' or '''Eastern black bear''' predominates in the Eastern half of the continent, while another subspecies, '''''Ursus americanus floridanus''''' or "'''Florida black bear'''" is found in southern Alabama, Georgia and Florida.


Black bears became genetically distinct from brown bears and polar bears approximately 5.05 million years ago, in the early part of the Pliocene epoch. American and Asian black bears are more closely related to each other than to other bear species, having diverged approximately 4.08 million years ago. Early specimens displayed larger average size than modern bears, though the fossil record is incomplete. It is believed that the American black bears' flexibility in diet and behavior equipped it to survive where other species died off during disruptions in climate and vegetation. Native Alabamians of the Creek nations called the black bear "nokose", while Cherokee people named it "gv-ni-ge-yo-na." During the settlement of Alabama bears were considered dangerous and were hunted freely.
Black bears became genetically distinct from brown bears and polar bears just over five million years ago, in the early part of the Pliocene epoch. American and Asian black bears are more closely related to each other than to other bear species, having diverged approximately 4.08 million years ago. Native Alabamians of the Creek nations called the black bear "nokose", while Cherokee people named it "gv-ni-ge-yo-na." During the settlement of Alabama, bears were considered dangerous and were hunted freely. [[Bear Meat Cabin]] in present-day [[Jones Valley]] was son named because it was the home of a trader proffering meat and skins from bears.


More than 800,000 bears are thought to survive in the wild, with around half of them in the United States. Though no stable breeding groups are currently known in Alabama, bear populations at the edges of its range are thought to be increasing in recent decades, including a number of sitings in Alabama. A wild black bear, nicknamed "[[Bruno (bear)|Bruno]]" was captured in [[Smithfield]] in June [[1993]] and housed temporarily at the [[Birmingham Zoo]] before it was released in Tennessee's Cherokee National Forest.
More than 800,000 bears are thought to survive in the wild, with around half of them in the United States. Though no stable breeding groups are currently known in Alabama, bear populations at the edges of its range are thought to have been increasing in recent decades, leading to a number of sightings in Alabama. The [[Little River Canyon]] is used as a corridor by bears pushed out of the developing areas between Atlanta, Georgia and Chattanooga, Tennessee due to loss of habitat. At least 26 individuals were recorded in the canyon in [[2012]] and [[2013]]. One tagged female came into the region from Georgia and had a litter of cubs before it was shot and killed by a homeowner. Several bear sightings were reported in Northern [[Jefferson County]] in the summer of [[2017]]. One was spotted outside a [[Waffle House]] in [[Leeds]] in June [[2018]].


A wild black bear, nicknamed "[[Bruno (bear)|Bruno]]" was captured in [[Smithfield]] in June [[1993]] and housed temporarily at the [[Birmingham Zoo]] before it was released in Tennessee's Cherokee National Forest.


==Habitat==
==Description==
Black bears prefer hardwood forests with thick understory and plentiful mast (edible plant materials such as nuts, leaf buds, berries and droops). In the southern Appalachians it is the mixed mesophytic oak-hickory forests that support bear populations.  
Black bears vary greatly in size and weight depending on age, gender, health and season. Adult males in the Smoky Mountains averaged 250 pounds and females averaged 104 pounds in one study. Exceptionally large individual black bears, weighing more than 1,000 pounds have been reported. Hibernating bears often lose 30 percent of their body weight over winter.


==Physical description==
They have broad, rounded heads with narrow muzzles and round ears set well back. Their paws are proportionally large, with black pads and rounded black or dark gray-brown claws. Their tails are vestigial, usually less than 5 inches long.


===Build===
Black bear fur is dense and soft. Almost all southern black bears have black fur, though white, blond, cinnamon and a range of brown colors have been found in the species, usually in more arid climates in the West.
The skulls of American black bears are broad, with narrow muzzles and large jaw hinges. Females tend to have more slender and pointed faces than males. Their claws are typically black or grayish brown. The claws are short and rounded, being thick at the base and tapering to a point. Claws from both hind and front legs are almost identical in length, though the foreclaws tend to be more sharply curved. The paws of the species are relatively sizeable, with a rear foot length of {{convert|13.7|to|22.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}, being proportionly larger than other medium-sized bear species but much smaller than the paws of large adult brown and especially polar bears.<ref name="Hunter"/> The soles of the feet are black or brownish, and are naked, leathery and deeply wrinkled. The hind legs are relatively longer than those of Asiatic black bears. The vestigal tail is usually 4.8&nbsp;inches (12&nbsp;cm) long. The ears are small and rounded, and are set well back on the head.


Black bears are highly dexterous, being capable of opening screw-top jars and manipulating door latches. They also have great physical strength. Even bear cubs have been known to turn over flat-shaped rocks weighing {{convert|310|to|325|lb|kg}} by flipping them over with a single foreleg.{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Bear Anatomy and Physiology"}} They move in a rhythmic, [[sure-footed]] way and can run at speeds of 25–30&nbsp;mph (40–50&nbsp;km/h).{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Behaviour and Activities"}} Black bears have good eyesight, and have been proven experimentally to be able to learn visual discrimination tasks based on color faster than chimpanzees and as fast as dogs.
===Behavior===
Black bears are strong and dexterous. They can lift heavy rocks and operate simple devices such as screw-tops and door knobs. They can run at speeds of up to 30 miles per hour, swim well, and climb trees readily. They have a powerful sense of smell, as well as acute hearing and eyesight, and are able to distinguish colors.


===Size===
Black bears produce a range of sounds, including aggressive growls, snorts bellows and roars as well as a number of mumbles and squeaks expressing apparent contentment in social situations.
Black bear weight tends to vary according to age, sex, health, and season. Seasonal variation in weight is very pronounced: in autumn, their pre-den weight tends to be 30% higher than in spring, when black bears emerge from their dens. Black bears on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] tend to be heavier on average than those on the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]], although black bears follow [[Bergmann's rule]] and bears from the northwest are often slightly heavier than the bears from the southeast. Adult males typically weigh between {{convert|57|-|250|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, while females weigh 33% less at {{convert|41|-|170|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Hunter"/><ref name="scorzafava">{{Cite book|publisher=Stackpole Books|title=Radical Bear Hunter|first=Dick|last=Scorzafava|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8117-3418-9}}</ref> In the state of [[California]], studies have indicated that the average mass is {{convert|86|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in adult males and {{convert|58|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in adult females.<ref name="Lariviere"/> Adult black bears in [[Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge]] in east-central [[Alaska]] were found to average {{convert|87.3|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in males and {{convert|63.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in females, whereas on [[Kuiu Island]] in southeast Alaska (where nutritious salmon are readily available) adult bears averaged an estimated {{convert|115|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://alaska.fws.gov/nwr/yukonflats/pdf/black_bear_monitoring_ursus.pdf |title=Black bear monitoring in eastern interior Alaska |journal=Ursus |volume=13 |issue=69–77 |year=2002 |author=Bertram, M.R. and Vivion M. T.}}</ref><ref>Peacock, Elizabeth (2004). [http://www.carnivoreconservation.org/files/thesis/peacock_2004_phd.pdf Population, Genetic and Behavioral Studies of Black Bears Ursus americanus in Southeast Alaska]. PhD Thesis, University of Nevada, Reno</ref> In [[Great Smoky Mountains National Park]], adult males averaged {{convert|112|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and adult females averaged {{convert|47|kg|lb|abbr=on}} per one study.<ref>[http://www.discoverlife.org/nh/tx/Vertebrata/Mammalia/Ursidae/Ursus/americanus/ Ursus americanus (Pallas); Black Bear]. Discoverlife.org. Retrieved on 2012-12-20.</ref> In [[Yellowstone National Park]], a population study found that adult males averaged {{convert|119|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and adult females averaged {{convert|67|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>Barnes, V.G., and O.E. Bray. 1967. Population characteristics and activities of black bears in Yellowstone National Park. Final rep., Colorado Wildl. Res. Unit, Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins; cited in [http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/bearchar.htm Characteristics of Black Bears and Grizzly Bears in YNP]. nps.gov</ref> In [[New York|New York state]], the two sexes reportedly average {{convert|135|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and {{convert|74|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, respectively.<ref>[http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/wildlife_pdf/BBNaturalhistory.pdf BLACK BEARS IN NEW YORK: Natural History, Range, and Interactions with People]. Bureau of Wildlife – Black Bear Management Team, 2003; Second Edition: 2007</ref> Adults typically range from {{convert|120|to|200|cm|in|abbr=on}} in head-and-body length, and {{convert|70|to|105|cm|in|abbr=on}} in shoulder height. The typically small tail is {{convert|7.7|-|17.7|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Bear Anatomy and Physiology"}}<ref>[http://audubonguides.com/species/Mammals/American-Black-Bear.html Audubon Field Guide]. Audubonguides.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-15.</ref><ref>Kronk, C. (2007). [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Ursus_americanus.html Ursus americanus]. Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved on 2011-09-15.</ref><ref>[http://www.arkive.org/american-black-bear/ursus-americanus/ American black bear videos, photos and facts – Ursus americanus]. ARKive. Retrieved on 2011-09-15.</ref> Although they are the smallest species in [[North America]], large males exceed the size of other bear species except the [[brown bear]] and [[polar bear]]s.{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Bear Anatomy and Physiology"}} The biggest wild American black bear ever recorded was a male from [[New Brunswick]], shot in November 1972, that weighed {{convert|409|kg|lb|abbr=on}} after it had been dressed, meaning it weighed an estimated {{convert|500|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in life, and measured {{convert|2.41|m|ft|abbr=on}} long.<ref name="wood">{{Cite book|publisher=Sterling Publishing Co|title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts & Feats|first=Gerald|last=Wood|year=1983|isbn=978-0-85112-235-9}}</ref> Another notably outsized wild black bear, weighing in at {{convert|408|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in total, was the cattle-killer shot in December 1921 on the Moqui Reservation in [[Arizona]].<ref name="wood"/> The record-sized bear from [[New Jersey]] was shot in [[Morris County, New Jersey|Morris County]] December 2011 and scaled {{convert|376.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>Stabile, Jim (2011-12-16) [http://www.dailyrecord.com/article/20111216/NJNEWS/312160008/829-pound-bear-takes-record-N-J-hunt "829-pound bear takes record in N.J. hunt"]. ''Daily Record''</ref> Even larger, the most massive black bear recorded in [[Pennsylvania]] (one of six weighing over {{convert|363|kg|lb|abbr=on}} shot in the last 15 years in the state) weighed in at {{convert|399|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and was shot in November 2010 in [[Pike County, Pennsylvania|Pike County]].<ref>[http://www.poconorecord.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20101119/NEWS/11190341/-1/NEWS01 Record-busting, 879-pound bear bagged in Poconos]. PoconoRecord.com (2010-11-19). Retrieved on 2013-08-19.</ref> The North American Bear Center, located in [[Ely, Minnesota]], is home to the world's largest captive male and female black bears. Ted, the male, weighed {{convert|431|-|453.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in the fall of 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bear.org/website/the-nabc/meet-our-bears/teds-page.html |title=North American Bear Center&nbsp;— Meet Our Bears > Ted's Page |publisher=Bear.org |last = Rogers | first = Lyn | accessdate= 11 February 2011}}</ref> Honey, the female, weighed {{convert|219.6|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in the fall of 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bear.org/website/the-nabc/meet-our-bears/honeys-page.html |title=North American Bear Center&nbsp;— Meet Our Bears > Honey's Page |publisher=Bear.org |accessdate=11 February 2011}}</ref>


===Pelage===
American black bears are usually nocturnal, especially when close to human settlements. They tend to range alone when foraging for food, except when raising cubs or taking advantage of abundant food sources, such as spawning fish or garbage dumps. When several bears feed in the same area, the largest males dominate the choicest spots. Bears travel long distances and mark their territories by rubbing their bodies against trees and scratching at the bark with their claws.
The fur is soft, with dense underfur and long, coarse, thick guard hairs.{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Bear Anatomy and Physiology"}} The fur is not as shaggy or coarse as that of brown bears.<ref name=wood>John George Wood, ''The illustrated natural history'', Vol. 2, George Routledge and sons, 1865</ref> American black bear skins can be distinguished from those of Asiatic black bears by the lack of a white mark on the chin and hairier footpads.<ref name="cites">[http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/ID/fauna/Volume1/A-112.002.004.001%20Ursus%20thibetanus_E.pdf Ursus thibetanus (G. Cuvier, 1823)]{{dead link|date=February 2011}}</ref> Despite their name, black bears show a great deal of color variation. Individual coat colors can range from white, blond, cinnamon, or light brown to dark chocolate brown or to jet black, with many intermediate variations existing. Bluish tinged black bears occur along a portion of coastal Alaska and British Columbia. White to cream colored black bears occur in coastal islands and the adjacent mainland of south-western British Columbia. Albino specimens have also been recorded.<ref name="Herrero">{{cite book|author=Herrero, Stephen |title=Bear Attacks: Their Causes and Avoidance|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gFlz6UKGqrcC|accessdate=16 May 2012|year=2002|publisher=Globe Pequot|isbn=978-1-58574-557-9}}</ref> Black coats tend to predominate in moist areas such as New England, New York, Tennessee, Michigan and western Washington. Approximately 70% of all black bears are black, though only 50% of black bears in the Rocky Mountains are black.{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Bear Anatomy and Physiology"}} Many black bears in Northwestern North America are cinnamon, blond or light brown in color, and thus may sometimes be mistaken for [[grizzly bear]]s. Grizzly (and other types of brown) bears can be distinguished by their shoulder hump, larger size and broader, more concave skull.<ref name="Macdonald">Macdonald, D.W. (2006) ''The Encyclopedia of Mammals''. Oxford University Press, Oxford ISBN 0199567999.</ref>


In his book ''The Great Bear Almanac'', Gary Brown summarized the predominance of black or brown/blond specimens by location:{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Bear Anatomy and Physiology"}}
Bear sows typically produce a first litter of cubs when 3 to 5 years old. They usually breed in summer, with males seeking several partners during a breeding season. Fertilized eggs are slow to implant and the cubs, 1 to 6 in a litter, are typically born in January and February. Black bear cubs first appear weighing less than a pound and sporting a downy gray coat and closed eyes. They are born with underdeveloped hindquarters and begin walking after five weeks and are weaned after about 30 weeks. They remain with their mother until reaching 16-18 months and reach their full size at around five years.


==Behavior==
A black bear's average life span is about 18 years, with individuals reported to reach 31 years in the wild and 44 years in captivity. There are few threats to an adult bear's survival if it has access to an expansive feeding range. Cubs are vulnerable to numerous large predators and juveniles are sometimes killed by brown bears where they share territory. Undernourished individuals are threatened with starvation during hibernation. Most black bear deaths are attributable to human activities such as hunting, trapping and auto-collisions.
In his ''Great Bear Almanac'', Gary Brown lists 20 different sounds in eight different contexts. Sounds expressing aggression include growls, woofs, snorts, bellows and roars. Sounds expressing contentment include mumbles, squeaks and pants.{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Behaviour and Activities"}} A Black Bear has better eyesight and a better sense of hearing compared to humans. Their keenest sense is the sense of smell, which is about 7 times greater than a dogs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Black Bear Biology & Behavior|url=http://westernwildlife.org/black-bear-outreach-project/biology-behavior-3/|accessdate=2013-11-21}}</ref> American black bears tend to be territorial and non-gregarious in nature. However, at abundant food sources (i.e. spawning [[salmon]] or garbage dumps) black bears may congregate and dominance hierarchies form, with the largest, most powerful males dominating the most fruitful feeding spots.<ref name="Nowak">Nowak, R.M. (1991) ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London.</ref> They [[territorial marking|mark their territories]] by rubbing their bodies against trees and clawing at the bark. Annual ranges held by mature male black bears tend to be very large but there is some variation. On [[Long Island (Washington)|Long Island]] off the coast of [[Washington (state)|Washington]], ranges average {{convert|5|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}, whereas on the [[Ungava Peninsula]] in [[Canada]] ranges can average up to {{convert|1,000|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}, with some males bears travelling as much as {{convert|4,349|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} in times of food shortages.<ref name="Hunter"/><ref name="Nowak"/> Black bears are excellent and strong swimmers, doing so for pleasure and to feed (largely on [[fish]]). Black bears climb regularly to feed, escape enemies or to hibernate. Half of bear species are habitually arboreal (the most arboreal species, the American and Asian black bears and the sun bear, being fairly closely related).<ref name="Hunter"/> Their arboreal abilities tend to decline with age.{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Behaviour and Activities"}} Black bears may be active at any time of the day or night, although mainly forage by night. Bears living near human habitations tend to be more extensively [[nocturnal]] and bears living near brown bears tend to be more extensively [[diurnality|diurnal]].<ref name="Hunter"/><ref name="Lariviere"/>
[[File:Inspecting Newborn Black Bear Cubs.jpg|thumb|Newborn black bear cubs]]


===Reproduction and development===
Although black bears are genetically adapted for hibernation, many living in warmer climates with longer growing seasons spend less time in metabolic dormancy. Black bears often carve dens out of hollow trees, fallen logs or in cliff banks or caves. Bears in hibernation may occasionally waken to forage, and litters are typically born in the winter months and nurtured in dens until Spring. Florida black bears rarely hibernate unless pregnant.
Sows usually produce their first litter at the age of 3–5&nbsp;years.{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Behaviour and Activities"}} Sows living in more developed areas tend to get pregnant at younger ages.<ref name="life">{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080930135301.htm |title=Urban Black Bears "Live Fast, Die Young"|publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=2008-10-01 |accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref> The breeding period usually occurs in the June–July period, though it can extend to August in the species' northern range. The breeding period lasts for 2–3&nbsp;months. Both sexes are promiscuous. Males try to mate with several females but large, dominant ones may violently claim a female if another mature male comes near.<ref name="Lariviere"/> Sows tend to be short tempered with their mates after copulating. The fertilized eggs undergo delayed development and do not implant in the female’s womb until November. The gestation period lasts 235&nbsp;days, and litters are usually born in late January to early February. Litter size is between one and six cubs; typically two or three.<ref name="North American Bear Center - Reproduction">{{cite web|title=North American Bear Center – Reproduction|url=http://www.bear.org/website/bear-pages/black-bear/reproduction.html|publisher=North American Bear Center}}</ref> At birth, cubs weigh {{convert|280|-|450|g|lb|abbr=on}}, and measure {{convert|20.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length. They are born with fine, gray, downlike hair, and their hind quarters are underdeveloped. They typically open their eyes after 28–40&nbsp;days, and begin walking after 5&nbsp;weeks. Cubs are dependent on their mother's milk for 30&nbsp;weeks, and will reach independence at 16–18&nbsp;months. At the age of six weeks, they attain {{convert|900|g|lb|abbr=on}}, by 8&nbsp;weeks they reach {{convert|2.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and by the age of 6&nbsp;months they weigh {{convert|18|to|27|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. They reach sexual maturity at the age of three years, and attain their full growth at 5&nbsp;years.{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Behaviour and Activities"}}
[[File:Ursus americanus PO 4.ogv|thumbnail|left|Female with cubs in [[Parc Omega]], Quebec]]


===Longevity and Mortality===
===Habitat and diet===
The average lifespan in the wild is 18&nbsp;years, though it is quite possible for wild specimens to survive for more than 23 years.<ref name="Macdonald"/> The record age of a wild specimen was 31&nbsp;years, while that in captivity was 44&nbsp;years.{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Bear Anatomy and Physiology"}} Average annual survival rates for adult bears is variable, ranging from 86% in [[Florida]] to 73% in [[Virginia]] and [[North Carolina]].<ref name="Lariviere"/> In [[Minnesota]], 99% of wintering adult bears were able to survive the hibernation cycle in one study.<ref name="Lariviere"/> Remarkably, a study of black bears in [[Nevada]] found that the amount of annual mortality of a population of bears in wilderness areas was 0%, whereas in developed areas in the state this figure rose to 83%.<ref name="Hunter"/> Survival in subadults is generally less assured. In [[Alaska]], only 14–17% of subadult males and 30–48% of subadult females were found in a study to survive to adulthood.<ref name="Lariviere"/> Across the range, the estimated amount of cubs who survive past their first year is 60%.<ref name="Hunter"/>
Black bears prefer hardwood forests with thick understory and plentiful mast (edible plant materials such as nuts, leaf buds, berries and droops). In the southern Appalachians it is the mixed mesophytic oak-hickory forests that best support bear populations.  


With the exception of the rare confrontation with an adult [[brown bear]] or [[gray wolf]] pack, adult black bears are not usually subject to natural predation.<ref name="Lariviere"/> Black bear cubs tend to be more vulnerable to predation than adults. Known predators of bear cubs have included [[bobcat]]s, [[coyote]]s, [[cougar]]s, [[wolves]], [[brown bear]]s and other bears of their own species.<ref name="Hunter"/><ref name="Lariviere"/> Many of these will stealthily snatch small cubs right from under the sleeping mother. There is a single record of a [[golden eagle]] snatching a yearling cub.<ref name="Hunter"/> Once out of hibernation, mother bears may be able to fight off most potential predators.<ref name="Lariviere"/> Even cougars will be displaced by an angry mother bear if they are discovered stalking the cubs.<ref>[http://sacramento.cbslocal.com/2012/03/29/bear-saves-hiker-from-cougar-in-butte-county/ Man Says Bear Saved Him From Mountain Lion Attack In Butte County « CBS Sacramento]. Sacramento.cbslocal.com (2012-03-29). Retrieved on 2012-12-21.</ref> Flooding of dens after birth may also occasionally kill newborn cubs. However, in current times, American black bears fatalities are overwhelmingly attributable to human activities. Seasonally, tens of thousands of black bears are hunted legally across North America, with many more being illegally poached or trapped. Auto-collisions also may claim many black bear lives annually.<ref name="Hunter"/><ref name="Lariviere"/>
Bears forage habitually in the morning and twilight hours for vegetation. In late winter, bears coming out of hibernation will eat whatever they find, including carrion. In spring most of their diet consists of new plant shoots and tree buds. In the summer berries and fruits become more available. As they prepare for winter, bears forage for most of the day to put on weight. Nuts and acorns predominate in the autumn diet, and may be gathered from trees or by raiding squirrel caches. Fall also brings bears farther outside their normal ranges where they may feed on farm crops, human refuse, beehives and bird feeders.  


===Hibernation===
In addition to plant matter, bears hunt for beehives and eat both honey and bees, as well as ants and numerous varieties of insect larvae. They will also consume bird eggs found in trees. Some black bears are active fishers, but that habit is more common in northwestern salmon streams. In Spring bears sometimes prey on juvenile deer by ambush, dragging prey to cover. In colder climates, bears damage trees by stripping the bark to eat the cambium layer of wood. They will also forage farm crops such as apples, corn and oats, and will take small livestock by force, or feed on animals shot by hunters if they are left undisturbed.
Black bears were once not considered true or "deep" hibernators, but because of discoveries about the metabolic changes that allow black bears to remain dormant for months without eating, drinking, urinating, or defecating, most biologists have redefined mammalian hibernation as "specialized, seasonal reduction in metabolism concurrent with scarce food and cold weather". Black bears are now considered highly efficient hibernators.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20100508030953/http://www.bear.org/website/bear-pages/black-bear/black-bear-facts/hibernation.html |title=Hibernation |publisher=Bear.org |date=2004-07-19 |accessdate=2011-02-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/denning.htm |title=Yellowstone National Park – Denning and Hibernation Behavior (U.S. National Park Service) |publisher=Nps.gov |date=2008-04-15 |accessdate=2011-02-19}}</ref>


Black bears enter their dens in October and November. Prior to that time, they can put on up to 30&nbsp;pounds of body fat to get them through the seven months during which they fast. Hibernation in black bears typically lasts 3–5&nbsp;months.<ref name="charlotte"/> During this time, their heart rate drops from 40–50 beats per minute to 8 beats per minute. They spend their time in hollowed-out dens in tree cavities, under logs or rocks, in banks, caves, or culverts, and in shallow depressions. Females, however, have been shown to be pickier in their choice of dens, in comparison to males.<ref name="goals1">{{cite web|url=http://www.entomology.cornell.edu/public/IthacaCampus/ExtOutreach/Outreach/Resources/pageBodySections/05/pageBodySections/00/text_files/file7/Golas_TeacherResourceGuide.pdf|title=American Black Bear Teaching Guide|last=Goals|first=Ben|publisher=Cornell|accessdate=22 November 2009}}</ref> Although naturally-made dens are occasionally used, most dens are dug out by the bear itself.<ref name="Macdonald"/> A special hormone, [[leptin]] is released into the black bear's systems, to suppress appetite. Because they do not urinate or defecate during dormancy, the nitrogen waste from the bear's body is biochemically recycled back into their proteins. This also serves the purpose of preventing muscle loss, as the process uses the waste products to build muscle during the long periods of inactivity. In comparison to true hibernators, their body temperature does not drop significantly (staying around 35&nbsp;degrees Celsius) and they remain somewhat alert and active. If the winter is mild enough, they may wake up and forage for food. Females also give birth in February and nurture their cubs until the snow melts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://culter.colorado.edu:1030/~kittel/WEcol_Projects06/BearsHiberntn_BBennett.ppt|title=Hibernation of the Black and Brown Bear|last=Bennett|first=Bobby|date=Spring 2006|accessdate=22 November 2009|location=Mountain Research Station}}</ref> During winter, black bears consume 25–40% of their body weight.<ref name="jim">{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/dewa/naturescience/upload/cmsstgBEAR.pdf |title=The Black Bear|work=Spanning the Gap – The newsletter of Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area |year=1993|author=Becker, Jim |accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref> The footpads peel off while they sleep, making room for new tissue. In the most southernly areas (i.e. Florida, Mexico, the [[Southeastern United States]]) of the black bear's distribution only pregnant females and mothers with yearling cubs will enter hibernation.<ref name="Hunter"/> After emerging from their winter dens in spring, they wander their home ranges for two weeks so that their metabolism accustoms itself to the activity. In mountainous areas, they seek southerly slopes at lower elevations for forage and move to northerly and easterly slopes at higher elevations as summer progresses. Black bears use dense cover for hiding and thermal protection, as well as for bedding.
===Bear attacks===
Though typically shying from confrontation, adult bears have occasionally attacked humans, sometimes killing them. These attacks seem to be motivated by hunger, occurring in park settings where bears become accustomed to finding food at picnic or camping areas. Park officials have been successful in reducing aggressive bear behaviors by enforcing safeguards on food and garbage. If forced into confrontation, a threatened black bear may roar, swat the ground, or make mock charges rather than actually attacking. If harassed, as by an aggressive dog, a bear will give chase. Black bear mothers are not unusually protective toward their cubs, as Grizzly bears are.


===Diet===
===Hunting and trapping===
Generally, American black bears are largely [[crepuscular]] in foraging active, though may actively feed at any time.<ref name="Nowak"/> Up to 85% of the black bear's diet consists of vegetation,{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Behaviour and Activities"}} though they tend to dig less than brown bears, eating far fewer [[root]]s, [[bulb]]s, [[corm]]s and [[tuber]]s than the latter species.<ref name="Herrero"/> When initially emerging from hibernation, they will seek to feed on carrion from winter-killed animals and newborn ungulates. As the spring temperature warms, black bears seek new shoots of many plant species, especially new [[grass]]es, wetland plants and [[forb]]s.<ref name="jim"/> Young shoots and [[bud]]s from trees and shrubs during the spring period are also especially important to black bears emerging from hibernation, as they assist in rebuilding muscle and strengthening the skeleton and are often the only digestible foods available at that time.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110602095210/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/publications/zoogoer/1999/2/fact-americanblack.cfm American Black Bear Fact Sheet – National Zoo| FONZ]. Nationalzoo.si.edu. Retrieved on 2011-09-15.</ref> During summer, the diet is comprised largely by [[fruit]]s, especially [[berries]] and soft masts such as buds and drupes. During the [[Polyphagia|autumn hyperphagia]], feeding becomes pretty much the full-time task of black bears. [[Mast (botany)|Hard masts]] become the most important part of the black bear's diet in autumn and may even partially dictate the species distribution. Favored masts such as [[hazlenut]]s, [[Acorn|oak acorns]] and [[Whitebark pine|whitebark pine nuts]] may be consumed by the hundreds each day by a single black bear during fall.<ref name="Hunter"/><ref name="Lariviere"/> During the fall period, American black bears may also habitually raid the nut caches of [[tree squirrel]]s.<ref name="jim"/> Also extremely important in fall are berries such as [[Huckleberry|huckleberries]] and [[Shepherdia|buffalo berries]].<ref name="Hunter"/> Black bears living in areas near human settlements or around a considerable influx of recreational human activity often come to rely on foods inadvertently provided by humans, especially during summertime. These include [[Waste|refuse]], [[Bird food|birdseed]], [[Agriculture|agricultural products]] and [[honey]] from [[Apiary|apiaries]].<ref name="Macdonald"/>
The settlement of North America was undertaken in concert with large-scale hunting of black bears for protection, commercial exploitation, and recreation. Bear skins were valued by furriers in Europe and constituted a major economic resource to trappers in Canada and the northern United States. Black bear fat, specifically the hard fat from the interior, was once valued as a cosmetic article which was thought to promote hair growth while providing an attractive gloss.


The majority of the black bear's animal diet consists of [[insect]]s such as [[bee]]s, [[yellow jacket]]s, [[ant]]s and their larvae.<ref name="jim"/> Black bears are also fond of [[honey]], and will gnaw through trees if hives are too deeply set into the trunks for them to reach them with their paws. Once the hive is breached, black bears will scrape the honeycombs together with their paws and eat them, regardless of stings from the bees.<ref name="wood"/> Black bears that live in northern coastal regions (especially the Pacific coast) will fish for [[salmon]] during the night, as their black fur is easily spotted by salmon in the daytime. However, the white furred black bears of the islands of western Canada have a 30% greater success rate in catching salmon than their black furred counterparts.<ref name="invis">{{cite news|last=Bourton |first=Jody |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8344000/8344367.stm |title=Spirit bears become 'invisible' by Jody Bourton, Earth News reporter |publisher=BBC News |date=2009-11-06 |accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref> Other fish including [[Catostomidae|suckers]], [[trout]] and [[catfish]] are readily caught when possible.<ref>[http://www.pvci.org/blackbear.html black bear]. Pvci.org. Retrieved on 2012-12-20.</ref> Although black bears do not often engage in active predation of other large animals for much of the year, the species will also regularly prey on [[mule deer|mule]] and [[white-tailed deer]] fawns in spring given the opportunity.<ref>Smith, R. (1983). ''Mule deer reproduction and survival in the LaSal Mountains of Utah'', M.S. thesis, Utah State University, Logan.</ref><ref name="Matthews">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1139/z88-179 | last1 = Mathews | first1 = N. E. | last2 = Porter | first2 = W. F | year = 1988 | title = Black bear predation on white-tailed deer neonates in the central Adirondacks | journal = Canadian Journal of Zoology | volume = 66 |pages = 1241–1242 | issue = 5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|jstor=3801608|author=Ozoga, J. J., and Clute, R. K. |year=1988|title= Mortality rates of marked and unmarked fawns|journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=52|pages=549–551|doi=10.2307/3801608|issue=3}}</ref> In addition they have been recorded similarly preying on [[elk]] calves in Idaho<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schlegal | first1 = M. | year = 1976 | title = Factor affecting calf elk survival in north central Idaho | journal = Western Association of State Game and Fish Commission | volume = 56 |pages = 342–355 }}</ref> and [[moose]] calves in Alaska.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=3808038|title=Moose calf mortality in summer at Kenai Peninsula, Alaska|journal=Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=44|pages=764–768|doi=10.2307/3808038|year=1980|last1=Franzmann|first1=Albert W.|last2=Schwartz|first2=Charles C.|last3=Peterson|first3=Rolf O.|issue=3}}</ref>
In the South, bear hunting was a popular sport for the wealthy, who often used dogs to chase and hold them at bay before killing them from horseback. Bear hunting remains legal in 28 states with varying seasons, limits and licensing requirements. Maine is the state with the largest number of licenses issued and kills reported.
 
Black bear predation on adult deer is rare but has been recorded.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Behrend | first1 = D.F. | last2 = Sage | first2 = R.W. | last3 = Jr | year = 1974 | title = Unusual feeding behavior by black bears |journal = Journal of Wildlife Management | volume = 38 | issue = 3| page = 570 | doi = 10.2307/3800894 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Svoboda, Nathan J., Belant, Jerrold L., Beyer, Dean E., Duquette, Jared F., Stricker, Heather K., Albright, Craig A. | year = 2011 | title = American black bear predation of an adult white-tailed deer | journal = Ursus | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 91–94. | doi = 10.2192/URSUS-D-10-00024.1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Austin, M. A., Obbard, M. E. and Kolenosky, G. B. |year=1994|title=Evidence for a black bear, ''Ursus americanus'', killing an adult moose, ''Alces alces''|journal=The Canadian Field Naturalist|volume=108|pages=236–238}}</ref> They may even hunt prey up to the size of adult female [[moose]], which are considerably larger than themselves, by ambushing them.<ref name="TEDDY"/> There is at least one record of a male black bear killing two bull [[elk]] over the course of six days by chasing them into deep snow banks where their movement is impeded. In [[Labrador]], black bears are exceptionally carnivorous, living largely off of [[caribou]], usually sickly, young or dead specimens, and [[rodent]]s such as [[vole]]s. This is believed to be due to a paucity of edible plant life in this sub-Arctic region and a local lack of competing large carnivores (including other bear species).<ref name="Macdonald"/> Like brown bears, black bears try to use surprise to ambush their prey and target the sickly animals in herds. Once a deer fawn is captured, it is frequently torn apart alive while feeding.<ref name="Matthews"/> If able to capture a mother deer in spring, the bear frequently begins feeding on the udder of lactating females, but generally prefer meat from the viscera. Black bears often drag their prey to cover, preferring to feed in seclusion. The skin of large prey is stripped back and turned inside out with the skeleton usually left largely intact. Unlike wolves and coyotes, black bears rarely scatter the remains of their kills. Vegetation around the carcass is usually matted down by black bears and their droppings are frequently found nearby. Black bears may attempt to cover remains of larger carcasses, though they do not do so with the same frequency as [[cougar]]s and [[grizzly bear]]s.<ref name="Predation">{{cite web|url=http://texnat.tamu.edu/ranchref/predator/bears/t-bears.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061017112052/http://texnat.tamu.edu/ranchref/predator/bears/t-bears.htm|archivedate=2006-10-17|title=Bear Predation&nbsp;— Description |publisher=Texnat.tamu.edu |accessdate=2008-11-24}}</ref> They will readily consume eggs and nestlings of various [[bird]]s and can easily access many tree nests, even the huge nest of the [[bald eagle]].{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Behaviour and Activities"}} Black bears have been reported stealing deer and other animals from human hunters.
 
===Interspecific predatory relationships===
Over much of their range, black bears are assured scavengers which, using their large size and considerable strength, can intimidate and, if necessary, dominate other predators in confrontations over carcasses. However, in occasions where they encounter the [[Kodiak bear|Kodiak]] or the [[grizzly bear|grizzly]] bears, the larger two [[brown bear|brown]] [[sub-species]] dominate them. Black bears tend to escape competition from brown bears by being more active in the daytime, and living in more densely forested areas. Violent interactions resulting in the deaths of black bears have been recorded in Yellowstone National Park.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greateryellowstonescience.org/files/pdf/ys5-gunther.pdf |title=Evidence of grizzly bear predation on a black bear in Hayden Valley|author=Gunther, Kerry A. and Biel, Mark J. |format=PDF |accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/upload/predation.pdf |title=Probable Grizzly Bear Predation On An American Black Bear In Yellowstone National Park|format=PDF |accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref>
 
Black bears do compete with [[cougar]]s over carcasses. Like brown bears, they will sometimes steal kills from cougars. One study found that both bear species visited 24% of cougar kills in Yellowstone and [[Glacier National Park (U.S.)|Glacier National Parks]], usurping 10% of carcasses.<ref>{{cite journal |author=COSEWIC. Canadian Wildlife Service |title=Assessment and Update Status Report on the Grizzly Bear (Ursus arctos) |publisher=[[Environment Canada]] |year=2002 |url=http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/CW69-14-166-2002E.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-04-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Encounter Competition between Bears and Cougars: Some Ecological Implications|jstor= 3873109|author=Murphy, Kerry M.; Felzien, Gregory S.; Hornocker, Maurice G. and Ruth, Toni K. |journal=Ursus|volume=10|year=1998|page=55 }}</ref> Fights between the two species are rare, though they can be violent. Cougars occasionally kill adult bears, a behavior reportedly witnessed in the 19th century.<ref name="Finding a Panther Guarding a Dead Bear">{{cite web|title=S. C. Turnbo: Finding a Panther Guarding a Dead Bear|url=http://thelibrary.org/lochist/turnbo/V12/ST363.html|publisher=thelibrary.org}}</ref> There are also 19th and early 20th century records of bears killing cougar, either in defense or in territorial disputes, and occasional fights which ended in both combatants fatally wounded.<ref name="Cougar vs Bears Accounts">{{cite web|title=Cougar vs Bears Accounts|url=http://www.freewebs.com/mountainlionsinfo/cougarvsbearsaccounts.htm|publisher=Everything about the Cougar / Mountain Lion. The Cougar rules wherever it roams|accessdate=2013-06-15}}</ref>
 
Black bear interactions with [[gray wolf|wolves]] are much rarer than with brown bears, due to differences in habitat preferences. The majority of black bear encounters with wolves occur in the species′ northern range, with no interactions being recorded in Mexico. Despite the black bear being more powerful on a one to one basis, packs of wolves have been recorded to kill black bears on numerous occasions without eating them. Unlike brown bears, black bears frequently lose against wolves in disputes over kills.<ref name="WOLVES">{{cite book | author= Mech, L. David and Boitani, Luigi |title=Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation | year=2001 | page= 448 | isbn= 0-226-51696-2 | publisher= University of Chicago Press | location= Chicago }}</ref> Wolf packs typically kill black bears when the large animals are in their hibernation cycle.<ref name="scorzafava"/>
 
There is at least one record of a black bear killing a [[wolverine]] in a dispute over food in Yellowstone National Park.<ref name="cc">{{cite web|url=http://www.ecoearth.info/shared/reader/welcome.aspx?linkid=22714&keybold=predator%20AND%20%20coyote |title=In Yellowstone, It's a Carnivore Competition| publisher=Washington Post |date=2003-05-19 |accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref> Black bears may sometimes habitually prey on [[American alligator]] nests. Sometimes, they are fought off by the female alligator but will also occasionally wound or even kill an adult alligator, though neither species are likely to confront a large adult of the other directly.<ref>''Crocodiles: Proceedings of the 6th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group of the Species Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN publication. New series)''. IUCN (1986), ISBN 2880329051.</ref> Ancedotal cases of alligator predation on bears have been reported, though such cases may involve assaults on cubs.<ref>[http://www.keywestaquarium.com/alligator Key West Florida Attractions | Alligator Exhibit]. Key West Aquarium (2012-11-30). Retrieved on 2012-12-20.</ref>
 
==Relationships with humans==
 
===In folklore, mythology and culture===
Black bears feature prominently in the stories of some of America's [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous people]]s. One tale tells of how the black bear was a creation of the [[Great Spirit]], while the grizzly was created by the Evil Spirit.<ref>Lippincott, Joshua B. (2009) ''Folklore and Legends of the North American Indian'', Abela Publishing Ltd, ISBN 0-9560584-6-9</ref> In the mythology of the [[Haida people|Haida]], [[Tlingit people|Tlingit]], [[Tsimshian]] people of the Northwest Coast, mankind first learned to respect bears when a girl married the son of black bear Chieftain.<ref>Bastian, Dawn Elaine and Mitchell, Judy K. (2004). ''Handbook of Native American mythology'', ABC-CLIO, ISBN 1-85109-533-0</ref> In [[Kwakiutl]] mythology, black and brown bears became enemies when Grizzly Bear Woman killed Black Bear Woman for being lazy. Black Bear Woman's children, in turn, killed Grizzly Bear Woman's own cubs.<ref>[[Julia Averkieva|Averkieva, Julia]] and [[Mark Sherman (collector)|Sherman, Mark]], ''Kwakiutl String Figures'', UBC Press, 1992, ISBN 0-7748-0432-7</ref> The [[Navajo people|Navajo]] believed that the Big Black Bear was chief among the bears of the four directions surrounding Sun's house, and would pray to it in order to be granted its protection during raids.<ref>Clark, LaVerne Harrell (2001). ''They sang for horses: the impact of the horse on Navajo & Apache folklore'', University Press of Colorado, ISBN 0-87081-496-6</ref>
 
[[Morris Michtom]], the creator of the [[teddy bear]], was inspired to make the toy when he came across a cartoon of [[Theodore Roosevelt]] refusing to shoot a black bear cub trapped up a tree.<ref name="LoC">{{cite web| url=http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/page.cgi/aa/presidents/roosevelt/bears_1| title=Teddy Bears| publisher=Library Of Congress| accessdate=2007-12-10| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20071217035253/http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/page.cgi/aa/presidents/roosevelt/bears_1| archivedate= 17 December 2007 | deadurl= no}}</ref> [[Winnie the Pooh]] was named after [[Winnipeg the Bear|Winnipeg]], a female black bear cub that lived at [[London Zoo]] from 1915 until her death in 1934.<ref name="winnie">[https://web.archive.org/web/20070703045949/http://www.cbc.ca/winnie/ ''A Bear Named Winnie''] CBC.ca TV (2004)</ref> A black bear cub who in the spring of 1950 was caught in the [[Capitan Gap fire]] was made into the living representative of [[Smokey Bear]], the mascot of the [[United States Forest Service]].<ref name="smoke">{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20100619235709/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/2002/6/smokey.cfm |title=Zoogoer Nov/Dec 2002 Sidebar: Smokey Comes to Washington by Alex Hawes |publisher=Nationalzoo.si.edu |accessdate=2011-02-21}}</ref>
 
The American black bear is the mascot of [[The University of Maine]] and [[Baylor University]], where the university houses two live black bears on campus.
 
[[Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore|Sleeping Bear Dunes]] is named after a Native American legend, where a female bear and her cub swam across Lake Michigan. Exhausted from their journey, the bears rested on the shoreline and fell sound asleep. Over the years, the sand covered them up, creating a huge sand dune.
 
===Attacks on humans===
Although an adult bear is quite capable of killing a human, American black bears typically avoid confronting humans when possible. Unlike [[grizzly bears]], which became a subject of fearsome legend among the European settlers of North America, black bears were rarely considered overly dangerous, even though they lived in areas where the pioneers had settled. Black bears rarely attack when confronted by humans, and usually limit themselves to making mock charges, emitting blowing noises and swatting the ground with their forepaws. However, according to Stephen Herrero in his ''Bear Attacks: Their Causes and Avoidance'',<ref name="Herrero"/> 23 people were killed by black bears from 1900 to 1980. The number of black bear attacks on humans is higher than those of the [[brown bear]] in North America, though this is largely because the black species considerably outnumbers the brown rather than greater aggressiveness. [[File:Bearmailbox.JPG|thumb|left|The incidence of bear attacks in parks and campgrounds declined after the introduction of bear-resistant garbage cans and other reforms]]Compared to brown bear attacks, aggressive encounters with black bears rarely lead to serious injury. However, the majority of black bear attacks tend to be motivated by hunger rather than territoriality, and thus victims have a higher probability of surviving by fighting back rather than submitting. Unlike grizzlies, female black bears do not display the same level of protectiveness to their cubs, and seldom attack humans in their vicinity.<ref name="Herrero"/> However, occasionally, attacks by protective mothers do occur.<ref name="Lariviere"/> The worst recorded fatality incident occurred in May 1978, in which a black bear killed three teenagers who were fishing in Algonquin Park in Canada.<ref name="kruuk"/> Another exceptional, spree-like attack occurred in August 1997 in [[Liard River Hot Springs Provincial Park]] in Canada, when an emaciated black bear attacked a child and mother, killing the mother as well as an adult man who tried to intervene. This bear was shot while mauling a fourth victim.<ref name="OutdoorLifeApril11999">{{cite web|url=http://www.outdoorlife.com/article/Hunting/Black-Bears--Simple-Fools-or-Cunning-Killers|title=Black Bears—Simple Fools or Cunning Killers|last=Shockey|first=Jim|date=1999-04-01|publisher=Outdoor Life|accessdate=2008-10-20}}</ref><ref name="17Aug1997LAT">{{cite news|title=Black Bear Kills Texas Woman, Canadian Man|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1997/aug/17/news/mn-23311|accessdate=25 December 2010|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=17 August 1997}}</ref>
 
The majority of attacks happened in national parks, usually near campgrounds, where the bears had become [[habituation|habituated]] to close human proximity and food conditioned.<ref name="Herrero"/> 1,028 incidents of black bears acting aggressively toward people, 107 of which resulted in injury, were recorded from 1964 to 1976 in the [[Great Smoky Mountains National Park]], and occurred mainly in tourist hotspots where people regularly fed the bears handouts.<ref name="kruuk">Kruuk, Hans (2002). ''Hunter and hunted: relationships between carnivores and people'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-89109-4</ref> In almost every case where open dumps or handouts that had previously attracted black bears were ceased, the amount of aggressive encounters with bears have decreased precipitously over time.<ref name="Lariviere"/> However, in the aforementioned case of the spree attack in Liard River Hot Springs, the attacking bear was believed to have been previously almost fully dependent on a local garbage dump that had closed and was starving as a result of the loss of that food source.<ref name="OutdoorLifeApril11999"/> Attempts to relocate bears are typically unsuccessful, as black bears seem to be able to return to their home range even without familiar landscape cues.<ref name="Lariviere"/>
 
===Livestock and crop predation===
A limitation of food sources in early spring and wild berry and nut crop failures during summer months are probably major contributing factors to black bears regularly feeding from commercial human-based food sources. Crops are frequently eaten by these bears, especially during autumn hyperphagia when natural foods are scarce. Favored crops may include [[apple]]s, [[oat]]s and [[corn]]s.<ref name="Hunter"/> Black bears can do extensive damage in some areas of the northwestern United States by stripping the bark from trees and feeding on the [[Vascular cambium|cambium]]. Livestock depredations by black bears occur mostly in spring. Though black bears have the capacity to (and occasionally do) hunt adult [[cattle]] and [[horse]]s, they seem to prefer smaller, more easily overwhelmed prey such as [[sheep]], [[goat]]s, [[calves]], and [[pig]]s. They normally kill by biting the neck and shoulders, though they may break the neck or back of prey with blows from the paws. Evidence of a bear attack includes claw marks and is frequently found on the neck, back, and shoulders of larger animals. [[Surplus killing]] of sheep and goats are common. Bears have been known to frighten livestock herds over cliffs, causing injuries and death to many animals; whether or not this is intentional is not known.<ref name="Predation" /> Occasionally, pets, especially [[dog]]s which are most prone to harass a bear, are killed by black bears.<ref>[http://www.wjhg.com/home/headlines/Black-Bear-Attacks-Dog-163784946.html Black Bear Attacks Dog]. Wjhg.com. Retrieved on 2012-12-21.</ref> It is not recommended to use unleashed dogs as a deterrent from bear attacks. Although large, aggressive dogs sometimes cause a bear to run, if pressed, angry bears frequently turn the tables and end up chasing the dog in return. A bear in pursuit of a pet dog has the potential to threaten both canid and human lives.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/dena/frequently-asked-questions-regarding-bears.htm Frequently Asked Questions Regarding Bears – Denali National Park & Preserve]. Nps.gov. Retrieved on 2012-12-21.</ref><ref>[http://www.uaex.edu/Other_Areas/publications/PDF/FSA-9087.pdf Encountering Black Bears in Arkansas]. University of Arkansas uaex.edu</ref>
{{-}}
 
===Hunting and exploitation===
 
====Hunting====
Historically, black bears were hunted by both Native Americans and European settlers. Some Native American tribes,{{which|date=April 2014}} in admiration for the black bear's intelligence, would decorate the heads of bears they killed with trinkets, and place them on blankets. Tobacco smoke would be wafted into the disembodied head's nostrils by the hunter that dealt the killing blow, and would compliment the animal for its courage.<ref name="wood"/> The [[Kutchin]] typically hunted black bears during their hibernation cycle. Unlike the hunting of hibernating grizzlies, which was wrought with danger, black bears took longer to awaken, and was thus safer and easier.<ref name="kutch"/> During the European colonisation of eastern North America, thousands of black bears were hunted for their meat, fat and fur.<ref name="world"/> [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wrote extensively on black bear hunting in his ''Hunting the Grisly and other sketches'', in which he stated "''in [a black bear] chase there is much excitement, and occasionally a slight spice of danger, just enough to render it attractive; so it has always been eagerly followed''". He wrote that black bears were difficult to hunt by stalking, due to their habitat preferences, though were easy to trap. Roosevelt described how in the Southern States, planters regularly hunted black bears on horseback with hounds. [[Wade Hampton III|General Wade Hampton]] was known to have been present at 500 successful black bear hunts, two thirds of which he killed personally. He killed thirty or forty black bears with only a knife, which he would use to stab the bears between the shoulder blades while they were distracted by his hounds.<ref name="TEDDY">{{cite book|author=Roosevelt, Theodore |title=Hunting the Grisly and Other Sketches|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rXzr9PaITD4C&pg=PT33|year= 2007|publisher=ReadHowYouWant.com|isbn=978-1-4250-7306-0|pages=33–}}</ref> Unless well trained, horses were often useless in black bear hunts, as they often bolted when the bears stood their ground.<ref name="wood"/> In 1799, 192,000 black bear skins were exported from Quebec. In 1822, 3,000 skins were exported from the [[Hudson's Bay Company]].<ref>[[Charles Frederick Partington|Partington, Charles Frederick]] (1835) ''The British Cyclopædia of Natural History: Combining a Scientific Classification of Animals, Plants, and Minerals'', Vol. 1, Orr & Smith.</ref> In 1992, untanned, fleshed and salted black bear hides were sold for an average of $165.{{sfn|Brown|1993|loc=Ch. "Use of Bears and Bear Parts"}}
 
In Canada, black bears are considered as both a big game and furbearer species in all provinces save for New Brunswick and Northwest Territories, where they are only classed as a big game species. There are currently 80,822 licensed black bear hunters in all of Canada. Canadian black bear hunts take place in the fall and spring, and both male and female bears can be legally taken, though some provinces prohibit the hunting of females with cubs, or yearling specimens.<ref name="plan"/>
 
Currently, 28 of the USA's states have black bear hunting seasons. Nineteen states require a bear hunting license, with some also requiring a big game license. In eight states, only a big game license is required to hunt black bears. Overall over 481,500 black bear hunting licences are sold per year. The hunting methods and seasons vary greatly according to state, with some bear hunting seasons including fall only, spring and fall, or year-round. New Jersey, in November 2010, approved of a six-day bear-hunting season in early December 2010 to slow the growth of the black bear population. Bear-hunting had been banned in New Jersey for five years.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sciarrino, Robert |url=http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2010/07/nj_environmental_comissioner_g.html |title=Black bear hunt gets final approval from Department of Environmental Protection head |publisher=NJ.com |date=2010-07-21 |accessdate=2011-02-19}}</ref> A [[Fairleigh Dickinson University]] PublicMind poll found that 53% of New Jersey voters approved of the new season if scientists concluded black bears were leaving their usual habitats and destroying private property.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://publicmind.fdu.edu/1011bears/ |title=Bear Necessity? Public Approves of Bear Hunt |publisher=Publicmind.fdu.edu |accessdate=2011-02-19}}</ref> Men, older voters, and those living in rural areas were more likely to approve of a bear-hunting season in New Jersey than women, younger voters, and those living in more developed parts of the state.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> In the western states, where there are large black populations, there are spring and year-round seasons. Approximately 18,845 black bears were killed annually in the USA between 1988–1992. Within this period, annual kills ranged from six bears in South Carolina to 2,232 in Maine.<ref name="plan"/>
 
According to Dwight Schuh in his ''Bowhunter's Encyclopedia'', black bears are the third most popular quarry of bowhunters, behind deer and elk.<ref>Schuh, Dwight R. (1992) ''Bowhunter's Encyclopedia'', Stackpole Books, ISBN 0-8117-2412-3</ref>
 
====Meat and organs====
Black bear meat had historically been held in high esteem among North America's indigenous people and colonists.<ref name="wood"/> Black bears were the only bear species the Kutchin hunted for their meat, though this constituted only a small part of their diet.<ref name="kutch">Nelson, Richard K. ''Hunters of the northern forest: designs for survival among the Alaskan Kutchin'', University of Chicago Press, 1986, ISBN 0-226-57181-5</ref> According to the second volume of ''Frank Forester's field sports of the United States, and British provinces, of North America'':
 
{{bquote|The flesh of the [black] bear is savoury, but rather luscious, and tastes not unlike pork. It was once so common an article of food in New-York as to have given the name of ''Bear Market'' to one of the principal markets of the city.|x|x|''Frank Forester's field sports of the United States, and British provinces, of North America'' p. 186}}
 
Theodore Roosevelt himself likened the flesh of young black bears to that of pork, and not as coarse or flavourless as the meat of grizzlies.<ref>Roosevelt, Theodore. ''Hunting Trips of a Ranchman: Hunting Trips on the Prairie and in the Mountains'', Adamant Media Corporation, ISBN 1-4212-6647-4</ref> The most favoured cuts of the black bear's meat are concentrated in the legs and loins. Meat from the neck, front legs and shoulders is usually ground into [[mincemeat]] or used for [[stew]]s and [[casserole]]s. Keeping the fat tends to give the meat a strong flavour. As black bears can have [[trichinellosis]], cooking temperatures need to be high in order to kill the parasites.<ref name="hunt">Smith, Richard P. (2007) ''Black Bear Hunting'', Stackpole Books, ISBN 0-8117-0269-3</ref>
 
Black bear fat was once valued as a cosmetic article which promoted hair growth and gloss. The fat most favoured for this purpose was the hard white fat found in the body's interior. As only a small portion of this fat could be harvested for this purpose, the oil was often mixed with large quantities of hog lard.<ref name="wood"/> However [[animal rights]] activism over the last decade has slowed the harvest of these animals; therefore the lard from black bear has not been used in recent years for the purpose of cosmetics.


==References==
==References==
* Powell, Roger A. (1997) ''Ecology and Behaviour of North American Black Bears: Home Ranges, Habitat, and Social Organization.'' Chapman & Hall ISBN 0412579901
* Powell, Roger A. (1997) ''Ecology and Behaviour of North American Black Bears: Home Ranges, Habitat, and Social Organization.'' Chapman & Hall ISBN 0412579901
* Edgemon, Erin (August 12, 2014) "Black bear sightings in Alabama are on the rise, but is the population growing?" {{BN}}
* Edgemon, Erin (August 12, 2014) "Black bear sightings in Alabama are on the rise, but is the population growing?" {{BN}}
* Edgemon, Erin (November 4, 2014) "Auburn researchers begin trapping, putting GPS collars on 20 black bears; Little River Canyon joins statewide study". {{BN}}
* Robinson, Carol (June 26, 2017) "It was a bear of a weekend in northern Jefferson County; game cameras capture sightings." {{BN}}


==External links==
==External links==
* [http://wildlife1.wildlifeinformation.org/000ADOBES/Bears/Bears_IUCN_ActionPlan/bearsAP_chapter8.pdf Wildlifeinformation.org: American Black Bear Conservation Action Plan]
* [http://www.mnh.si.edu/mna/image_info.cfm?species_id=415 American black bear] at the Smithsonian Institute
* [http://www.mnh.si.edu/mna/image_info.cfm?species_id=415 Smithsonian Institution—North American Mammals: ''Ursus americanus'' (American black bear)]


[[Category:Bears]]
[[Category:Bears]]
[[Category:Native animals]]
[[Category:Native animals]]

Latest revision as of 08:09, 22 June 2018

The American black bear (Ursus americanus) is a medium-sized omnivorous bear found in forested areas throughout North America, and the only type of bear native to the Southeast. Its range has been reduced and fragmented by human settlement and populations are most stable in Northern Canada and along the Rocky and Appalachian ranges.

The subspecies Ursus americanus americanus or Eastern black bear predominates in the Eastern half of the continent, while another subspecies, Ursus americanus floridanus or "Florida black bear" is found in southern Alabama, Georgia and Florida.

Black bears became genetically distinct from brown bears and polar bears just over five million years ago, in the early part of the Pliocene epoch. American and Asian black bears are more closely related to each other than to other bear species, having diverged approximately 4.08 million years ago. Native Alabamians of the Creek nations called the black bear "nokose", while Cherokee people named it "gv-ni-ge-yo-na." During the settlement of Alabama, bears were considered dangerous and were hunted freely. Bear Meat Cabin in present-day Jones Valley was son named because it was the home of a trader proffering meat and skins from bears.

More than 800,000 bears are thought to survive in the wild, with around half of them in the United States. Though no stable breeding groups are currently known in Alabama, bear populations at the edges of its range are thought to have been increasing in recent decades, leading to a number of sightings in Alabama. The Little River Canyon is used as a corridor by bears pushed out of the developing areas between Atlanta, Georgia and Chattanooga, Tennessee due to loss of habitat. At least 26 individuals were recorded in the canyon in 2012 and 2013. One tagged female came into the region from Georgia and had a litter of cubs before it was shot and killed by a homeowner. Several bear sightings were reported in Northern Jefferson County in the summer of 2017. One was spotted outside a Waffle House in Leeds in June 2018.

A wild black bear, nicknamed "Bruno" was captured in Smithfield in June 1993 and housed temporarily at the Birmingham Zoo before it was released in Tennessee's Cherokee National Forest.

Description

Black bears vary greatly in size and weight depending on age, gender, health and season. Adult males in the Smoky Mountains averaged 250 pounds and females averaged 104 pounds in one study. Exceptionally large individual black bears, weighing more than 1,000 pounds have been reported. Hibernating bears often lose 30 percent of their body weight over winter.

They have broad, rounded heads with narrow muzzles and round ears set well back. Their paws are proportionally large, with black pads and rounded black or dark gray-brown claws. Their tails are vestigial, usually less than 5 inches long.

Black bear fur is dense and soft. Almost all southern black bears have black fur, though white, blond, cinnamon and a range of brown colors have been found in the species, usually in more arid climates in the West.

Behavior

Black bears are strong and dexterous. They can lift heavy rocks and operate simple devices such as screw-tops and door knobs. They can run at speeds of up to 30 miles per hour, swim well, and climb trees readily. They have a powerful sense of smell, as well as acute hearing and eyesight, and are able to distinguish colors.

Black bears produce a range of sounds, including aggressive growls, snorts bellows and roars as well as a number of mumbles and squeaks expressing apparent contentment in social situations.

American black bears are usually nocturnal, especially when close to human settlements. They tend to range alone when foraging for food, except when raising cubs or taking advantage of abundant food sources, such as spawning fish or garbage dumps. When several bears feed in the same area, the largest males dominate the choicest spots. Bears travel long distances and mark their territories by rubbing their bodies against trees and scratching at the bark with their claws.

Bear sows typically produce a first litter of cubs when 3 to 5 years old. They usually breed in summer, with males seeking several partners during a breeding season. Fertilized eggs are slow to implant and the cubs, 1 to 6 in a litter, are typically born in January and February. Black bear cubs first appear weighing less than a pound and sporting a downy gray coat and closed eyes. They are born with underdeveloped hindquarters and begin walking after five weeks and are weaned after about 30 weeks. They remain with their mother until reaching 16-18 months and reach their full size at around five years.

A black bear's average life span is about 18 years, with individuals reported to reach 31 years in the wild and 44 years in captivity. There are few threats to an adult bear's survival if it has access to an expansive feeding range. Cubs are vulnerable to numerous large predators and juveniles are sometimes killed by brown bears where they share territory. Undernourished individuals are threatened with starvation during hibernation. Most black bear deaths are attributable to human activities such as hunting, trapping and auto-collisions.

Although black bears are genetically adapted for hibernation, many living in warmer climates with longer growing seasons spend less time in metabolic dormancy. Black bears often carve dens out of hollow trees, fallen logs or in cliff banks or caves. Bears in hibernation may occasionally waken to forage, and litters are typically born in the winter months and nurtured in dens until Spring. Florida black bears rarely hibernate unless pregnant.

Habitat and diet

Black bears prefer hardwood forests with thick understory and plentiful mast (edible plant materials such as nuts, leaf buds, berries and droops). In the southern Appalachians it is the mixed mesophytic oak-hickory forests that best support bear populations.

Bears forage habitually in the morning and twilight hours for vegetation. In late winter, bears coming out of hibernation will eat whatever they find, including carrion. In spring most of their diet consists of new plant shoots and tree buds. In the summer berries and fruits become more available. As they prepare for winter, bears forage for most of the day to put on weight. Nuts and acorns predominate in the autumn diet, and may be gathered from trees or by raiding squirrel caches. Fall also brings bears farther outside their normal ranges where they may feed on farm crops, human refuse, beehives and bird feeders.

In addition to plant matter, bears hunt for beehives and eat both honey and bees, as well as ants and numerous varieties of insect larvae. They will also consume bird eggs found in trees. Some black bears are active fishers, but that habit is more common in northwestern salmon streams. In Spring bears sometimes prey on juvenile deer by ambush, dragging prey to cover. In colder climates, bears damage trees by stripping the bark to eat the cambium layer of wood. They will also forage farm crops such as apples, corn and oats, and will take small livestock by force, or feed on animals shot by hunters if they are left undisturbed.

Bear attacks

Though typically shying from confrontation, adult bears have occasionally attacked humans, sometimes killing them. These attacks seem to be motivated by hunger, occurring in park settings where bears become accustomed to finding food at picnic or camping areas. Park officials have been successful in reducing aggressive bear behaviors by enforcing safeguards on food and garbage. If forced into confrontation, a threatened black bear may roar, swat the ground, or make mock charges rather than actually attacking. If harassed, as by an aggressive dog, a bear will give chase. Black bear mothers are not unusually protective toward their cubs, as Grizzly bears are.

Hunting and trapping

The settlement of North America was undertaken in concert with large-scale hunting of black bears for protection, commercial exploitation, and recreation. Bear skins were valued by furriers in Europe and constituted a major economic resource to trappers in Canada and the northern United States. Black bear fat, specifically the hard fat from the interior, was once valued as a cosmetic article which was thought to promote hair growth while providing an attractive gloss.

In the South, bear hunting was a popular sport for the wealthy, who often used dogs to chase and hold them at bay before killing them from horseback. Bear hunting remains legal in 28 states with varying seasons, limits and licensing requirements. Maine is the state with the largest number of licenses issued and kills reported.

References

  • Powell, Roger A. (1997) Ecology and Behaviour of North American Black Bears: Home Ranges, Habitat, and Social Organization. Chapman & Hall ISBN 0412579901
  • Edgemon, Erin (August 12, 2014) "Black bear sightings in Alabama are on the rise, but is the population growing?" The Birmingham News
  • Edgemon, Erin (November 4, 2014) "Auburn researchers begin trapping, putting GPS collars on 20 black bears; Little River Canyon joins statewide study". The Birmingham News
  • Robinson, Carol (June 26, 2017) "It was a bear of a weekend in northern Jefferson County; game cameras capture sightings." The Birmingham News

External links

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