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The '''1918 influenza pandemic''' was a worldwide pandemic spread by '''H1N1 influenza virus''' which is believed to have spread through as much as a fourth of the world's population and to have killed tens of millions between January [[1918]] and December [[1920]]. Though the origin of the outbreak is not known for certain, the disease was popularly called the "Spanish influenza" or "Spanish flu", partly because reports of the high death toll in Spain had not been censored as they had from other parts of the world.
The '''1918 influenza pandemic''' was a worldwide pandemic spread by '''H1N1 influenza virus''' which is believed to have spread through as much as a fourth of the world's population and to have killed tens of millions between January [[1918]] and December [[1920]]. Though the origin of the outbreak is not known for certain, the disease was popularly called the "Spanish influenza" or "Spanish flu", partly because reports of the high death toll in Spain had not been censored as they had from other parts of the world.


The effectiveness of the virus itself was compounded by the ongoing [[World War I|Great War]] and the spread of other infections through ill-equipped sick wards and military camps.
The effectiveness of the virus itself was compounded by the ongoing [[World War I|Great War]] and the spread of other infections through ill-equipped sick wards and military camps. Birmingham was hit hardest during the second week of October 1918, well after some large coastal cities and areas with military camps, but also ahead of many of Alabama's smaller cities.


==Reported cases==
==Reported cases==
Confident reports of H1N1 cases in [[Jefferson County]] began to appear in the first week of October 1918. By Monday [[October 7]] four deaths were attributed to the epidemic in the course of two days, and 50 new cases were reported that morning. [[Jefferson County Health Officer]] [[J. D. Dowling]] stated his suspicion that many more cases had not been reported because they had either not been attended by a physician, or even if they had, physicians had been working non-stop without finding time to submit reports.
Confident reports of H1N1 cases in [[Jefferson County]] began to appear in the first week of October 1918. By Monday [[October 7]] four deaths were attributed to the epidemic in the course of two days, and 50 new cases were reported that morning. [[Jefferson County Health Officer]] [[J. D. Dowling]] stated his suspicion that many more cases had not been reported because they had either not been attended by a physician, or even if they had, physicians had been working non-stop without finding time to submit reports.


By the next afternoon, six more deaths had been recorded and another 284 cases reported, bringing the total number of reported cases above 1,000. Downing continued to believe that there were probably 10 unreported cases for each that was reported countywide.
By the next afternoon, six more deaths had been recorded and another 284 cases reported, bringing the total number of reported cases above 1,000. Downing continued to believe that there were probably 10 unreported cases for each that was reported countywide. On the following day, four more deaths and 810 new cases were reported in the city, with abundant evidence that communities across the county were experiencing the effect despite delays in official reporting. On Thursday [[October 10]] there were 10 more deaths and as many as 2,000 more cases, bringing the city's death toll to 60 and the number of cases to nearly 4,200.
 
The number of new cases declined for the first time on Friday, [[October 11]] when 600 new cases were reported. On Saturday only 350 new cases appeared, though that was followed by 416 reports on Monday. The number of deaths continued to grow as people diagnosed earlier succumbed. Twenty-three deaths from influenza were recorded on Monday, [[October 14]], including that of [[Robert Ewing]], president of [[Roberts & Son]] printers and publishers.


==Official responses==
==Official responses==
Line 13: Line 15:
Dowling]worked with the [[Jefferson County Department of Health|Jefferson County Board of Health]], the [[Birmingham City Commission]], and the City Attorney to draft a public health ordinance that would force theaters, churches and places of public assembly to shut down, as well as to cancel the ongoing [[1918 Alabama State Fair]]. In his address to the City Commission, Downing referred to the reduced capacity of medical aid due to the war effort and stated that, "the only way of limiting the disease is to limit the public gatherings." Another physician and member of the [[Alabama Board of Health]], [[D. F. Talley]], communicated that U.S. Surgeon General Rupert Blue had recommended that all places of assembly be closed temporarily. He concluded that, "it is serious to close these places, but it will be a thousand times more serious to let them operate and not close them."
Dowling]worked with the [[Jefferson County Department of Health|Jefferson County Board of Health]], the [[Birmingham City Commission]], and the City Attorney to draft a public health ordinance that would force theaters, churches and places of public assembly to shut down, as well as to cancel the ongoing [[1918 Alabama State Fair]]. In his address to the City Commission, Downing referred to the reduced capacity of medical aid due to the war effort and stated that, "the only way of limiting the disease is to limit the public gatherings." Another physician and member of the [[Alabama Board of Health]], [[D. F. Talley]], communicated that U.S. Surgeon General Rupert Blue had recommended that all places of assembly be closed temporarily. He concluded that, "it is serious to close these places, but it will be a thousand times more serious to let them operate and not close them."


Speaking on behalf of the State Fair Association, [[Victor Hanson]] pledged to abide by the Commission's decision, but also touted efforts made to "sprinkle the grounds with an antiseptic to kill the germs," and the establishment of an on-site hospital tent. Attorney [[B. M. Allen]] made a case that the [[Lyric Theatre]] was doing "war work" through the presentation of newsreels and advertising war bonds, and that it was well ventilated. By contrast, the management of the [[Strand Theatre]] and associated houses told the Commission that they would close, "whether an ordinance was passed or not," and would no reopen until the Board of Health proclaimed that it was safe to do so. Similarly the manager of [[Loew's Bijou]] said that his theater had not opened that day and, "would be opened when all danger is over and not before." The managers of the [[Alcazar Theatre|Alcazar]], [[ColonialTheatre|Colonial]], [[Odeon One Theatre|Odeon One]], [[Odeon Two Theatre|Odeon Two]], [[PrincessTheatre|PrincessTheatre]], [[Rialto Theatre|Rialto]] and [[Trianon Theatre|Trianon]] theaters followed suit.
Speaking on behalf of the State Fair Association, [[Victor Hanson]] pledged to abide by the Commission's decision, but also touted efforts made to "sprinkle the grounds with an antiseptic to kill the germs," and the establishment of an on-site hospital tent. Attorney [[B. M. Allen]] made a case that the [[Lyric Theatre]] was doing "war work" through the presentation of newsreels and advertising war bonds, and that it was well ventilated. By contrast, the management of the [[Strand Theatre]] and associated houses told the Commission that they would close, "whether an ordinance was passed or not," and would no reopen until the Board of Health proclaimed that it was safe to do so. Similarly the manager of [[Loew's Bijou]] said that his theater had not opened that day and, "would be opened when all danger is over and not before." The managers of the [[Alcazar Theatre|Alcazar]], [[ColonialTheatre|Colonial]], [[Odeon One Theatre|Odeon One]], [[Odeon Two Theatre|Odeon Two]], [[PrincessTheatre|PrincessTheatre]], [[Rialto Theatre|Rialto]] and [[Trianon Theatre|Trianon]] theaters followed suit. The touring companies of actors remained lodged in town pending rescheduling of dates in other cities.
 
After the ordinance passed, all public entertainments and large meetings were officially prohibited at midnight. Many anticipated visitors to the State Fair, unaware of the measure, arrived at [[Birmingham Terminal Station]] and the [[L & N Station]] and ended up, "wandering aimlessly up and down the streets" until their return trip. The ''[[Birmingham News]]'' published the text of several pastors' planned Sunday sermons for the benefit of those missing church services.
 
A similar ordinance was passed by the [[Bessemer Board of Aldermen]]. The orders did not affect public transportation or business houses, but Dowling warned that, "exposure to other persons in crowded cars and in closed rooms and poorly ventilated quarters will exact a heavy toll of sickness," and urged the public to take, "drastic steps" to protect themselves and others. Anyone with any symptoms was requested to remain isolated from others until the symptoms were relieved.
 
A planned "Liberty Loan Parade" to promote war bonds had already been postponed from October 5 due to rain, and was eventually canceled in light of the epidemic. Dowling himself wrote to all the members of the [[City and County Health Officers' Association of Alabama]] that their conference planned for October 10–11 was cancelled. Various fraternal organizations cancelled their regular meetings. Some "essential" services remained in operation, such as the telephone exchanges. The [[Southern Bell Telephone & Telegraph Co.]] scrubbed floors and walls and employed trained nurses to respond to any reports of symptoms and coordinate isolation.
 
On Wednesday, [[October 9]] the county courts suspended hearings, and the [[Jefferson County Board of Revenue]] authorized Dowling to take steps to, "concentrate all cases of influenza that cannot be cared for in homes." Per his order, [[Central High School]] and [[Industrial High School]] were converted for use as temporary hospitals for white and African-American patients, respectively. The [[American Red Cross]] participated in setting up and staffing the new wards, and the public was urged to lend cots and bedding to outfit them. Calls for volunteers to help tend to the sick and to drive patients in private cars were also put out. [[HIllman Hospital]] remained full, and the temporary hospitals admitted about 40 patients each in their first few days, though Downing was still concerned that many bedridden patients were suffering in homes with no one there to care for them.
 
One measure not taken was any attempt to officially quarantine all reported cases, as the epidemic was already widespread and well-publicized, and the county did not have sufficient forces to manage such a system beyond the voluntary isolation of those with symptoms. Downing had recommended that the [[Birmingham Railway, Light & Power Company]] order all streetcars to run with open windows. A suggestion to delay stores from opening until 10:00 to stagger commuter traffic was not taken up.  The [[Red Mountain Sanatorium]], which housed tuberculosis patients, was closed to visitors.


The orders did not affect public transportation or business houses, but Dowling warned that, "exposure to other persons in crowded cars and in closed rooms and poorly ventilated quarters will exact a heavy toll of sickness," and urged the public to take, "drastic steps" to protect themselves and others. Anyone with any symptoms was requested to remain isolated from others until the symptoms were relieved.
Once the number of new cases began to drop in mid-October, Downing urged that the public still seek fresh air and avoid crowded streetcars or gatherings. Anyone sneezing or coughing should remain at home and faithfully use handkerchiefs. He characterized the city's status on October 13 saying, "Birmingham has the epidemic well in hand, but Birmingham must 'sit steady in the boat' and drive home every precaution in order that a final victory might be won over the plague."


==Economic relief==
==Economic relief==
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==References==
==References==
* "Influenza Causes Deaths Here; Big Closing Possible." (October 6, 1918) {{BN}}, p. 1
* Forrester, F. S. (October 7, 1918) "Influenza Causes Board to Declare Fortnight Holiday." {{BN}}, p. 1
* Forrester, F. S. (October 7, 1918) "Influenza Causes Board to Declare Fortnight Holiday." {{BN}}, p. 1
* "Influenza Cased To Be Massed, Is Latest Proposal" (October 9, 1918) {{BN}}, p. 1
* "Nurses Guard 'Hello Girls'." (October 9, 1918) {{BN}}, p. 9
* "Death Claims 10 More Influenza Victims In City." (October 10, 1918) {{BN}}, p. 1
* "Influenza Fury Over, Is Belief of Health Men." (October 13, 1918) {{BN}}, p. 1
* "Sermons Given For Churchless People of City." (October 13, 1918) {{BN}}, p. 1


==External links==
==External links==

Revision as of 16:27, 4 April 2020

The 1918 influenza pandemic was a worldwide pandemic spread by H1N1 influenza virus which is believed to have spread through as much as a fourth of the world's population and to have killed tens of millions between January 1918 and December 1920. Though the origin of the outbreak is not known for certain, the disease was popularly called the "Spanish influenza" or "Spanish flu", partly because reports of the high death toll in Spain had not been censored as they had from other parts of the world.

The effectiveness of the virus itself was compounded by the ongoing Great War and the spread of other infections through ill-equipped sick wards and military camps. Birmingham was hit hardest during the second week of October 1918, well after some large coastal cities and areas with military camps, but also ahead of many of Alabama's smaller cities.

Reported cases

Confident reports of H1N1 cases in Jefferson County began to appear in the first week of October 1918. By Monday October 7 four deaths were attributed to the epidemic in the course of two days, and 50 new cases were reported that morning. Jefferson County Health Officer J. D. Dowling stated his suspicion that many more cases had not been reported because they had either not been attended by a physician, or even if they had, physicians had been working non-stop without finding time to submit reports.

By the next afternoon, six more deaths had been recorded and another 284 cases reported, bringing the total number of reported cases above 1,000. Downing continued to believe that there were probably 10 unreported cases for each that was reported countywide. On the following day, four more deaths and 810 new cases were reported in the city, with abundant evidence that communities across the county were experiencing the effect despite delays in official reporting. On Thursday October 10 there were 10 more deaths and as many as 2,000 more cases, bringing the city's death toll to 60 and the number of cases to nearly 4,200.

The number of new cases declined for the first time on Friday, October 11 when 600 new cases were reported. On Saturday only 350 new cases appeared, though that was followed by 416 reports on Monday. The number of deaths continued to grow as people diagnosed earlier succumbed. Twenty-three deaths from influenza were recorded on Monday, October 14, including that of Robert Ewing, president of Roberts & Son printers and publishers.

Official responses

The Birmingham Board of Education closed city schools for two weeks beginning on Tuesday, October 8, and the same action was taken by Jefferson County Schools and the Bessemer Board of Education.

Dowling]worked with the Jefferson County Board of Health, the Birmingham City Commission, and the City Attorney to draft a public health ordinance that would force theaters, churches and places of public assembly to shut down, as well as to cancel the ongoing 1918 Alabama State Fair. In his address to the City Commission, Downing referred to the reduced capacity of medical aid due to the war effort and stated that, "the only way of limiting the disease is to limit the public gatherings." Another physician and member of the Alabama Board of Health, D. F. Talley, communicated that U.S. Surgeon General Rupert Blue had recommended that all places of assembly be closed temporarily. He concluded that, "it is serious to close these places, but it will be a thousand times more serious to let them operate and not close them."

Speaking on behalf of the State Fair Association, Victor Hanson pledged to abide by the Commission's decision, but also touted efforts made to "sprinkle the grounds with an antiseptic to kill the germs," and the establishment of an on-site hospital tent. Attorney B. M. Allen made a case that the Lyric Theatre was doing "war work" through the presentation of newsreels and advertising war bonds, and that it was well ventilated. By contrast, the management of the Strand Theatre and associated houses told the Commission that they would close, "whether an ordinance was passed or not," and would no reopen until the Board of Health proclaimed that it was safe to do so. Similarly the manager of Loew's Bijou said that his theater had not opened that day and, "would be opened when all danger is over and not before." The managers of the Alcazar, Colonial, Odeon One, Odeon Two, PrincessTheatre, Rialto and Trianon theaters followed suit. The touring companies of actors remained lodged in town pending rescheduling of dates in other cities.

After the ordinance passed, all public entertainments and large meetings were officially prohibited at midnight. Many anticipated visitors to the State Fair, unaware of the measure, arrived at Birmingham Terminal Station and the L & N Station and ended up, "wandering aimlessly up and down the streets" until their return trip. The Birmingham News published the text of several pastors' planned Sunday sermons for the benefit of those missing church services.

A similar ordinance was passed by the Bessemer Board of Aldermen. The orders did not affect public transportation or business houses, but Dowling warned that, "exposure to other persons in crowded cars and in closed rooms and poorly ventilated quarters will exact a heavy toll of sickness," and urged the public to take, "drastic steps" to protect themselves and others. Anyone with any symptoms was requested to remain isolated from others until the symptoms were relieved.

A planned "Liberty Loan Parade" to promote war bonds had already been postponed from October 5 due to rain, and was eventually canceled in light of the epidemic. Dowling himself wrote to all the members of the City and County Health Officers' Association of Alabama that their conference planned for October 10–11 was cancelled. Various fraternal organizations cancelled their regular meetings. Some "essential" services remained in operation, such as the telephone exchanges. The Southern Bell Telephone & Telegraph Co. scrubbed floors and walls and employed trained nurses to respond to any reports of symptoms and coordinate isolation.

On Wednesday, October 9 the county courts suspended hearings, and the Jefferson County Board of Revenue authorized Dowling to take steps to, "concentrate all cases of influenza that cannot be cared for in homes." Per his order, Central High School and Industrial High School were converted for use as temporary hospitals for white and African-American patients, respectively. The American Red Cross participated in setting up and staffing the new wards, and the public was urged to lend cots and bedding to outfit them. Calls for volunteers to help tend to the sick and to drive patients in private cars were also put out. HIllman Hospital remained full, and the temporary hospitals admitted about 40 patients each in their first few days, though Downing was still concerned that many bedridden patients were suffering in homes with no one there to care for them.

One measure not taken was any attempt to officially quarantine all reported cases, as the epidemic was already widespread and well-publicized, and the county did not have sufficient forces to manage such a system beyond the voluntary isolation of those with symptoms. Downing had recommended that the Birmingham Railway, Light & Power Company order all streetcars to run with open windows. A suggestion to delay stores from opening until 10:00 to stagger commuter traffic was not taken up. The Red Mountain Sanatorium, which housed tuberculosis patients, was closed to visitors.

Once the number of new cases began to drop in mid-October, Downing urged that the public still seek fresh air and avoid crowded streetcars or gatherings. Anyone sneezing or coughing should remain at home and faithfully use handkerchiefs. He characterized the city's status on October 13 saying, "Birmingham has the epidemic well in hand, but Birmingham must 'sit steady in the boat' and drive home every precaution in order that a final victory might be won over the plague."

Economic relief

References

External links

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